British Literature - Week 11 - Arthurian Literature - "The Elusive Arthur"

There is significant circumstantial evidence supporting the existence of a leader/general/king named Arthur/Artorius in the mid-fifth century C.E. (A.D.). In my view, there is a strong likelihood someone named Arthur existed and the legend of King Arthur is based on a historical figure. Due to the numerous sources written over several centuries in many languages mentioning Arthur, it seems probably the writings are based on someone who led battles in Britain around 460 C.E. The "no smoke without fire" argument is appropriate considering all the "smoke" swirling around Arthur. What was the original spark that generated all that smoke?

I found what may appear to be an unconvincing and irrelevant bit of information quite compelling. Near the end of the sixth century, the name Arthur experienced a resurgence. Popular historic figures often pave the way for a plethora of namesakes and there is no other plausible explanation for the sudden popularity of the name Arthur other than that an actual, popular person named Arthur existed.

Arthur is included in many accounts where all other figures are historical. Thus, it stands to reason Arthur is also a historical figure. All the people mentioned in the Annales Cambriae were real, leading me to believe Arthur was also real. Folklorist Jennifer Westwood pointed out that in every case, figures pictured sleeping in a cave are historical, not merely legends. So it would seem that Arthur was a living, breathing man, or at the very least was thought to be a real man by those who wrote about him throughout the years.

The Round Table at Winchester Castle.https://wwnorton.com/college/english/nael/middleages/
topic_2/illustrations/imroun.htm

There are references to, and ommissions of, Arthur from the earliest historical account of British history. Gildas, a sixth-century monk, does not mention Arthur by name, nor does Bede in 731 C.E. However, an Old Welsh Poem written in the sixth century, Y Gododdin, mentioned Arthur by name. Nennius, in the early ninth century, claimed to have gathered up all the oral and written tradition and "made one heap of all he found" (Lacy and Ashe 12). Nennius pictures Arthur as a leader of battles who carried the image of the Virgin Mary into battle, and at one time killed 960 men. One can see in this account the historical figure birthing the legendary figure.

The time period Arthur lived in cannot be pinned down with exactitude, but the many references to fighting the Saxons put his lifetime during the period the Britons were fighting off invading barbarians--Vandals, Alans, Sueve, Franks, Goths, Burgundians, and Huns. When Britain broke away from the Roman Empire in around 410 C.E., Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began to invade Britain. They expanded and multiplied, eventually taking power and naming Britain "Angleland" (England). However, for a short period of time, the Britons resisted, and it is during this period that Arthur must have lived. This resistance is historical, and all the references to Arthur place him at the center of the resistance.

The final piece in the puzzle to solve Arthur's legitimacy is from outside Britain. A cleric from Brittany named William wrote the Legend of St. Goeznovius. He called Arthur 'the king of the Britons,' and noted that Arthur cleared the warlike men of Saxony from the island before he died. All the features of the story are historical. Thus, with all the evidence provided, Arthur himself should be considered historical.

British Literature - Week 10 - Wife of Bath's Tale - What do Women Want?!

Who would ask this question? Women or men? When might this question be asked? In 2019 or 1399? The answer to both questions is  "yes" and "both"! Believe it or not, Chaucer's pilgrim, the Wife of Bath, answers this question in a tale about a maiden, a knight, an old woman, King Arthur, and Queen Guenevere.

882         And so bifel that this kyng Arthour

                  And so it happened that this king Arthur
883         Hadde in his hous a lusty bacheler,                  
                  Had in his house a lusty bachelor,
884         That on a day cam ridynge fro ryver,                  
                 That on one day came riding from hawking,
885         And happed that, allone as he was born,                  
                 And it happened that, alone as he was born,
886         He saugh a mayde walkynge hym biforn,                  
                  He saw a maiden walking before him,
887         Of which mayde anon, maugree hir heed,                  
                 Of which maiden straightway, despite all she could do,
888         By verray force, he rafte hire maydenhed;                  
                  By utter force, he took away her maidenhead;

Basically, the maiden is walking along minding her own business, when this knight comes up to her, admires her, and rapes her. There is great consternation in King Arthur's Court. King Arthur acquiesces to his wife Guenevere's request, and he allows her to decide whether the knight will live or die. She tells the offending knight he has exactly one year to figure out what women want. If he can answer the question within one year, he will be saved.

904         I grante thee lyf, if thou kanst tellen me
                  I grant thee life, if thou canst tell me

905         What thyng is it that wommen moost desiren.
                  What thing it is that women most desire.

So the knight travels to ask everyone he can find what it is that women most want. Along the way he gets a variety of answers:

• riches
• gaiety
• clothing
• lust in bed
• widowhood
• flattery
• freedom
• to be considered steadfast
• to be able to keep a secret

He continues to seek for the one, right answer and comes upon 24 dancing ladies. Upon his approach they all disappear, save for one very old, very ugly woman. He asks her "what thing it is that women most desire." She has the answer, she says, but demands he agree to meet her one request of him if she is right. He gives his assent willingly. 

The knight and the old woman go back to King Arthur's Court and he gives the answer:

1038       "Wommen desiren to have sovereynetee
                    Women desire to have sovereignty

1039       As wel over hir housbond as hir love,
                  As well over her husband as her love,
1040       And for to been in maistrie hym above.
                  And to be in mastery above him. 

What do you think? Do you agree? Let's unpack that word "sovereynetee." According to Susanne Sara Thomas, in "The Problem of Defining Sovereynetee in the Wife of Bath's Tale," the two "sovereigns" in the Tale are "apparently Arthur's queens and the old woman" (Thomas). The word's pairing with the word "maistrie" seems to suggest control and dominance, but to have mastery connotes "to prevail, win the victory, be victorious" (Thomas). At the time Chaucer wrote Canterbury Tales--context is supreme--sovereignty meant "complete independence and self-government" (Thomas). So is that what we women really want - complete independence?

That's not the end of the tale, though. After the knight gives Queen Guenevere the answer, which is correct, the old woman collects on his promise and makes the knight marry her. He is not at all happy, as you can imagine, but a promise is a promise. On their wedding night ...

1083       Greet was the wo the knyght hadde in his thoght,
                  Great was the woe the knight had in his thought,

1084       Whan he was with his wyf abedde ybroght;
                  When he was brought to bed with his wife;
1085       He walweth and he turneth to and fro.
                  He wallows and he turns to and fro.
1086       His olde wyf lay smylynge everemo,
                  His old wife lay smiling evermore,
1087       And seyde, "O deere housbonde, benedicitee!
                  And said, "O dear husband, bless me!
1088       Fareth every knyght thus with his wyf as ye?
                  Does every knight behave thus with his wife as you do?

In other words, "Yo, hubby, why the long face? Do all husbands act like this on their wedding night?" So the old woman gives him a choice--she will stay as she is, old and ugly, and be a very faithful wife; or, she will transform into a beautiful young maiden, but she will be unfaithful. It's his choice. Well, apparently he was paying attention, because he gives a brilliant answer: you choose!

1228       This knyght avyseth hym and sore siketh,
                 This knight deliberates and painfully sighs,

1229       But atte laste he seyde in this manere:
                  But at the last he said in this manner:
1230       "My lady and my love, and wyf so deere,
                  "My lady and my love, and wife so dear,
1231       I put me in youre wise governance;
                  I put me in your wise governance;
1232       Cheseth youreself which may be moost plesance
                  Choose yourself which may be most pleasure
1233       And moost honour to yow and me also.
                  And most honor to you and me also.
1234       I do no fors the wheither of the two,
                  I do not care which of the two,
1235       For as yow liketh, it suffiseth me."
                  For as it pleases you, is enough for me."

And what does she do? She chooses to be young, beautiful, and faithful! How about that for a happy ending (except for the poor maiden in the beginning of the tale). It's important to remember that this is a tale written by the Wife of Bath, and her fingerprints and character are all over the tale. Here is the link if you'd like to read the entire tale: http://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/teachslf/wbt-par.htm

Please post your own answer to the question (whether you are a man or a woman) - what do women really want?!

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Works Cited

Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Geoffrey Chaucer Page. Ed. General Editor Larry D. Benson. Cambridge: Houghton Mifflin Co., 2008. Web. 1 April 2019. .

Thomas, Susanne Sara. “The Problem of Defining ‘Sovereynetee’ in the ‘Wife of Bath’s Tale.’” 

           Chaucer Review, vol. 41, no. 1, July 2006, pp. 87–97. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1353/cr.2006.0017.

British Literature - Week 9 - Wife of Bath's Prologue

http://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/canttales/wbpro/

We're back to finish our examination of some of the greatest British Literature every written. In Canterbury Tales, readers are introduced to all the characters going on the pilgrimage to Canterbury in the General Prologue, followed by the tales by various characters. The tales are usually preceded by prologues - so first we get a preview into the author of the tale, and then the author (one of the pilgrims) tells a story. The stories are each a product of that particular pilgrim, so another avenue of exploration includes analyzing why that character told that tale. Chaucer was a brilliant poet, which makes reading his work enjoyable and exhausting, like exhuming the text for hidden meaning!

How can I describe the Wife of Bath. She is bawdy, forthright, unapologetic, and a feminist ahead of her time. She is on the pilgrimage to find husband #6! The first five husbands died (which is curious in and of itself!). The Wife of Bath had three good husbands -- good is defined by her as an old, rich, wealthy husband who will die soon and leave her all his worldly goods. She had a love/hate relationship with her fifth husband (who was a pall-bearer at the funeral of her fourth husband). He literally threw the book at her--the Book of Wicked Wives.

1       "Experience, though noon auctoritee
                "Experience, though no written authority
2       Were in this world, is right ynogh for me
                Were in this world, is good enough for me
3       To speke of wo that is in mariage;
                To speak of the woe that is in marriage;
4       For, lordynges, sith I twelve yeer was of age,
                For, gentlemen, since I was twelve years of age,
5       Thonked be God that is eterne on lyve,
                Thanked be God who is eternally alive,
6       Housbondes at chirche dore I have had fyve --
                I have had five husbands at the church door --

Throughout the prologue, the Wife of Bath carries on an argument, an "apologia," defending her many marriages and her attitudes toward men. She includes arguments from the Apostle Paul, and church fathers like St. Jerome and St. Augustine. The Wife of Bath carries on a theological argument for multiple husbands and enjoyment of sex, carefully choosing biblical passages to support her arguments. Here is a small sampling:

55       I woot wel Abraham was an hooly man,
                I know well Abraham was a holy man,
56       And Jacob eek, as ferforth as I kan;
                And Jacob also, insofar as I know;
57       And ech of hem hadde wyves mo than two,
                And each of them had more than two wives,
58       And many another holy man also.
                And many another holy man also.
59       Wher can ye seye, in any manere age,
                Where can you find, in any historical period,
60       That hye God defended mariage
                That high God forbad marriage
61       By expres word? I pray yow, telleth me.
                By express word? I pray you, tell me.
62       Or where comanded he virginitee?
                Or where commanded he virginity?
63       I woot as wel as ye, it is no drede,
                I know as well as you, it is no doubt,
64       Th' apostel, whan he speketh of maydenhede,
                The apostle, when he speaks of maidenhood,
65       He seyde that precept therof hadde he noon.
                He said that he had no precept concerning it.
66       Men may conseille a womman to been oon,
                Men may advise a woman to be one,
67       But conseillyng is no comandement.
                But advice is no commandment.

My students reviewed the Wife of Bath's description in the General Prologue, and worked in small groups examining the primary texts to which the Wife of Bath refers in her argument in favor of multiple marriages. We discussed medieval marriage and contemporary marriage, the differences, and even the similarities. In the 14th century, women were identified by their relationship to men. Has that changed as much as we think it has? For one answer, watch this video by my new favorite author, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie: We Should All Be Feminists

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Work Cited

Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Geoffrey Chaucer Page. Ed. General Editor Larry D. Benson. Cambridge: Houghton Mifflin Co., 2008. Web. 1 April 2019. .

British Literature - Week 8 - Canterbury Tales

If you studied Chaucer in school, or have any familiarly with Middle English, you probably have heard or read the first 18 lines of the General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales (modern English translation provided under each line of Middle English):

1   Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote

  When April with its sweet-smelling showers

2   The droghte of March hath perced to the roote,

 Has pierced the drought of March to the root,

3   And bathed every veyne in swich licou

  And bathed every vein (of the plants) in such liquid

4   Of which vertu engendred is the flour;

 By which power the flower is created;

5   Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth

  When the West Wind also with its sweet breath,

6    Inspired hath in every holt and heeth

  In every wood and field has breathed life into

7    The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne

   The tender new leaves, and the young sun

8    Hath in the Ram his half cours yronne,

 Has run half its course in Aries,

9   And smale foweles maken melodye,

 And small fowls make melody,

10  That slepen al the nyght with open ye

   Those that sleep all the night with open eyes

11   (So priketh hem Nature in hir corages),

   (So Nature incites them in their hearts),

12   Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,

  Then folk long to go on pilgrimages,

13   And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,

 And pilgrims to seek foreign shores,

14   To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;

  To distant shrines, known in various lands;

15    And specially from every shires ende

  And specially from every shire's end

16    Of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende,

   Of England to Canterbury they travel,

17   The hooly blisful martir for to seke,

  To seek the holy blessed martyr,

18   That hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke.

   Who helped them when they were sick. (Chaucer)

What's going on here? Well it's April, the wind is blowing, flowers are blooming, birds are singing, and it's time for a pilgrimage. An assorted group of misfits join together at a pub to go on a pilgrimage to Canterbury and the site of Thomas a Becket's martyrdom. Chaucer gathers 29 pilgrims from a wide variety of backgrounds--Knight, Parson (pastor), Nun, Miller (sells grain), Plowman (farmer), and many others. Each pilgrim shall tell two tales on the way to Canterbury, and two on the way back -- the one who tells the best tale will earn a free meal upon return to the pub - the Tabard Inn. Canterbury Tales should have totaled 120 tales, but only 23 are written. Chaucer died before he could complete his magnum opus. Few poems have survived as long or garnered as much study as Canterbury Tales.

The poem defies genre - at times an estates satire, catalog, portraiture, fabliau (French fable). Chaucer draws readers into a bawdy, raucous, hilarious setting, against the backdrop of 14th century England and the Black Death - the plague that had decimated half the population. Possibly some of its immediate and enduring popularity testifies to our need for distraction and entertainment!

What would a modern-day Canterbury Tales look like? Where would such an odd assortment of folks all be going - maybe to a concert, or a political event, a 4th of July celebration, or the beach? What modern-day characters would comprise a 2019 Canterbury Tales - doctor, rap artist, student, priest, homeless mom, banker, nerd, athlete, drug dealer, chef?!?

If you'd like to read it for yourself, click Canterbury Tales General Prologue. 

Next week we'll examine the Wife of Bath - a fascinating, independent woman who embarks on the pilgrimage to find husband number six - the first five died!

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Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Geoffrey Chaucer Page. Ed. General Editor Larry D. Benson. Cambridge: Houghton Mifflin Co., 2008. Web. 1 April 2019. .

British Literature - Week 7 - Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Part II

Last week I provided a summary of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Did you read the epic poem? Did you enjoy it?! This week we will look at some of the themes and points of discussion in Sir Gawain - cultural references, chivalry, tempter and tempted, and character tests.

One of the elements of teaching ancient literature I most enjoy involves finding references in contemporary culture to the ancient texts. With an observant eye and consumption of a broad array of books and articles, anyone can find frequent references to the canonical texts. Just yesterday I began The Ministry of Utmost Happiness, by Arundhati Roy.  On page 14, Roy describes a shrine to Hazrat Sarmad Shaheed, a Jewish Armenian merchant who loved a Hindu boy, renounced Judaism, embraced Islam, then also renounced Islam. Roy writes how Sarmad was "beheaded on the steps of the Jama Masjid... and his head continued to recite his poems of love even after it had been severed from his body... he picked up his speaking head, as casually as a modern-day motorcyclist might pick up his helmet..." (Roy 12). Sounds familiar, right?!

Let's look first at the concept of chivalry. Chivalry refers to the honor, deeds, and actions of a knight (chevalier, caballero), often in war and in tournaments on his cheval (horse, in French).  A chivalrous knight goes on adventures which test his strength, bravery, and also his character. Sir Gawain intervenes and prevents King Arthur from accepting the challenge offered by the Green Knight. Sir Gawain demonstrates bravery, he might get his head chopped off, and loyalty--he effectively saves his king from beheading.

Once Sir Gawain accepts the challenge/beheading game, he has one year to allow the Green Knight to reciprocate -- in other words, to get beheaded himself! He spends several days as a guest of Bertilak and his wife, and is tempted by Bertilak's wife every day. She tries her utmost to seduce him, but he remains strong in the face of temptation and does not allow the seduction, even when she questions his manliness! Sir Gawain must be proud of himself for avoiding the temptation, but he didn't pass the real test.

Bertilak and Sir Gawain agreed to exchange their winnings at the end of each day. Sir Gawain received a deer, a boar, and a fox. Sir Gawain received kisses, and kissed Bertilak at the end of each day... The scenes of hunting, camaraderie, physical sport, are juxtaposed with the bedroom scenes. In the first, the animals are hunted; in the second, Sir Gawain is hunted! Just when he believes he has passed the test, he fails. When Bertilak's wife offers him her green girdle to save his life, he accepts it. But he doesn't give it to Bertilak at the end of day, as the game requires. He loves his life too much to be completely honest and fails the test of bravery.

I'll conclude this post with another recent reference to Sir Gawain found in the blog, Better Living Through Beowulf, by Robin Bates. She argues that "Donald Trump’s public relations lawyer Rudy Giuliani put on a performance for the ages this past Sunday, reminding me of no one so much as the fox in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight."

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Works Cited

Bates, Robin. https://betterlivingthroughbeowulf.com/green-knight-the-great-trump-hunt/

Roy, Arundhati. The Ministry of Utmost Happiness. Alfred A. Knopf, 2007.

British Literature - Week 6 - Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Part I

Beheading, chivalry, seduction, hunting, slaughter, shape-shifting... a 14th century poet intricately weaved all these elements to create the timeless poem, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. The source of delight and revulsion, shock and amusement, Sir Gawain does not disappoint its readers.  If you'd like to read it again, check out this link:  Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

The poet opens by setting Sir Gawain in historical context, going all the way back to the fall of Troy. Aeneas, on the losing side of the Battle of Troy, is the founding father of Rome (check out The Aeneid), and Aeneas' great grandson, Brutus, is the founder of (you guessed it) Britain. Why would a poet feel the need to place his work in a broad historical context? Several possible reasons exist, including to lend legitimacy, to improve his ethos argument, and to show the poem's place in a long line of canonical literature.

So from the first alliterative line, "Since the siege and the assault was ceased at Troy," to the reference to "high-born Aeneas" and "Felix Brutus," the poem sets King Arthur up as the "most courteous of all" (Boroff 1).

A brief summary will help you understand the poem:

Part I

• King Arthur and his knights gather on New Year's Day for a feast;
• A Green Knight (he and his horse are bright green in color) enters the hall and proposes a game; whoever accepts the challenge will be given an ax to strike the Green Knight, and in one year the Green Knight will have a chance to return the strike;
• The knights hesitate, and King Arthur prepares to accept the challenge, but then Sir Gawain steps up, takes the proferred ax, and beheads the Green Knight - "the head was hewn off and fell to the floor;"
• The story ends there..... NOT!
• The headless Green Knight bends over and picks up his body-less head! The head tells Gawain to meet him in one year at the Green Chapel.

Part II

• Sir Gawain faithfully sets out in one year to find the Green Knight. After travelling "over country wild and strange" Sir Gawain prays to the Virgin Mary, and immediately stumbles upon a castle run by Lord Bertilak. 
• Bertilak proposes another game - 
• "whatever I win in the woods I will give you at eve, 
• and all you have earned you must offer to me" (Boroff).

Part III

• Bertilak goes hunting for three days, killing a deer, a boar, and a fox. The hunting scenes are juxtaposed with scenes of Bertilak's wife unsuccessfully attempting to seduce Sir Gawain. She tells him "we are here alone" and "my body is here at hand, your each wish to fulfill," among other amorous and tempting phrases (Boroff).
• Each night Bertilak gives Sir Gawain the spoils of his hunt, and Sir Gawain gives Bertilak what he "won" during the day, one kiss, then two kisses, then three kisses (given to him by Bertilak's wife).
• Bertilak's wife does not seduce Sir Gawain, but she does give him a green girdle which will make him invincible -- "for the man that possesses this piece of silk, if he bore it on his body, belted about, there is no hand under heaven that could hew him down, for he could not be killed by any craft on earth" (Boroff).

Part IV

• Sir Gawain finds the Green Chapel and meets the Green Knight. He carries with him the green girdle, which he should have relinquished to Bertilak.
• Sir Gawain believes the green girdle will prevent his beheading, and it does.
• But then Bertilak reveals himself - Bertilak IS the Green Knight! Surprised?? 
• Bertilak tells Sir Gawain that Morgan le Fey came up with the idea of the game and the bestowing of the green girdle to test King Arthur's knight(s). 
• Sir Gawain is ashamed that although he didn't succumb to the seduction, he did fail the test of bravery, and loved his own life more than loyalty and honesty.
• "Accursed be a cowardly and covetous heart," Sir Gawain exclaims. Lord Bertilak tells Sir Gawain now that his failings are made known, he holds him "polished as a pearl, as pure and as bright as you had lived free of fault since first you were born" (Boroff).
• When Sir Gawain returns to King Arthur's Court in humility, claiming "this is the blazon of the blemish that I bear on my neck," King Arthur comforts Sir Gawain, and insists all the knights wear a "belt of bright green" in solidarity.

The Order of the Garter -- to which the green girdle relates-- was established in 1348 and is still active today in England, comprised of the Sovereign (king or queen), the Prince of Wales, and 24 other royal and high-ranking members! The motto is "shame on him who thinks ill of it."

Next week we will plumb the depths of the poem and cull out the themes, lessons, and treasures therein!

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Works Cited

Borroff, Marie, trans. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1967. e-book. 14 February 2019. 

"Imagined Book Promotion:  "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight"" by Ken Whytock is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0

British Literature - Week 5 - "Girl power" in Lanval (more Arthurian literature)

In my last post I offered a succinct introduction to Arthurian literature. Over the next few weeks I'll zero in on a few texts exhibiting "girl power!" Arthur may (or may not) have been king, but the women in Arthurian literature exert agency and power in subtle and not-so-subtle ways. Let's begin with the story of Lanval.

Marie de France, the author, is (rather obvious) a woman from France! Her status as a French female underpins the story-line of Lanval. A romance, fairytale, or lai (short stories in verse, usually about people in love), the main character, Lanval, belongs to King Arthur's court, but though he gave up all he had to serve the king, King Arthur "forgot Lanval. Lanval got nothing from the King's hand." (de France). The other men envied Lanval "for being brave and generous, for his beauty and his prowess," so though he was part of the court, he felt excluded and outcast (de France).

On a journey "just for fun," he met two lovely ladies who told him their lady sent them to bring Lanval to her. He did not hesitate! Lanval was brought to a pavilion, and taken to a woman on "so rich a bed, You'd pay a castle for the sheet" (de France). You get the picture! The woman has traveled a distance to come to Lanval and "gives him her love, and what's more, her body... afterwards she gives a present: anything he may ever want he'll get, as far as his needs extend" (de France). A true fairytale--he need only ask and he can receive whatever he wants, from a beautiful woman who pursued him. She has only one requirement - he must not reveal their meeting or their love to anyone.

Lanval uses his new wealth to ransom prisoners, give to those in need, and hold feasts. When Lanval returns to King Arthur's court, Queen Guinevere tries to seduce him! Lanval is a popular guy! The queen promises her love, and Lanval rejects her, telling her he cannot betray his king. The queen then accuses him of being gay, and his responds by revealing his love for the other woman. Lanval praises the beauty and goodness of his "fairy queen." and Guinevere is beside herself, as "pain and anger drove her wild--she'd been insulted and reviled" (de France).

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Queen Guinevere proceeds to accuse Lanval of trying to seduce her, to her husband, King Arthur, reminiscent of the story of Joseph and Potiphar's wife in the book of Genesis. When Lanval comes before the King to hear the accusation, he admits the existence of the fairy queen, knowing that their love will now end. Lanval grieves, believing he will never see his fairy queen again. Instead of Lanval saving the "princess," he is saved by her. The traditional fairy tale of a knight in shining armor saving a distraught princess is flipped on its proverbial head! She arrives amid much pomp and description of her beautiful body and declares, "O King, I have loved your vassal, this one here! I mean Lanval... the queen was in the wrong... may your barons set him free!" (de France).  Lanval and the maiden (his fairy queen) ride off on a horse to Avalon, the fair island, a happy ending.

What a great story! My students, especially my female students, really enjoyed this flipped fairy tale. The theme of women's empowerment wove its way through this British Literature course. Our next foray into women's empowerment in Arthurian literature will be Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Stay tuned!

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Work Cited

France, Marie de. "Lanval." The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Ed. General Editor Stephen Greenblatt. Trans. Robert Hanning and Joan Ferrante. Vol. 9. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2012. 154-167. book.